Tuesday, January 28, 2020
American Foreign Policy In The 20th Century Politics Essay
American Foreign Policy In The 20th Century Politics Essay ..every nation which desires to maintain its freedom (and), its independence must ultimately realise that the right of such independence cannot be separated from the responsibility of making good use of it. The 20th century has often been referred to as the American Century. Throughout the last century, the United States of America (USA or US) has been involved in every significant international political event and incident. Despite war having been brought to its shores only once during the Century, with the bombing of Pearl Harbour during the Second World War, the United States, as it is commonly referred to, has participated in several international wars and regional military conflicts during the 20th century, either directly or indirectly. Today American strength, prestige and influence are so great that Washington is inevitably a factor in every international equation and the global dynamics, whether it is nuclear disarmament, combating terrorism, environmental change or economic slowdown. As the sole superpower in the world today, Americas influence in world affairs can simply not be escaped. In achieving such stature, a substantial role has been played by Americas Foreign Policy. Several scholars generally tend to regard the nature of American Foreign Policy to be reactionary. The common refrain that emerges from their studies and analyses is that American Foreign Policy in the 20th century has been primarily a defensive response to the actions of other world powers. They claim that during the initial decades after independence, the United States largely followed a policy of Isolationism and aspired to remain neutral in the international political upheavals of the period. Later, when the United States commenced proactive participation in international affairs, American Foreign Policy, it is claimed, never harboured hegemonic aspirations. On the other hand, a large section of the world considers the United States to be essentially an imperious state. The champion of liberal democracy has often been labelled a neo-imperialist country and its Foreign Policy perceived to be predominantly pursuing parochial and self-seeking agenda. It is claimed by this section that, under the garb of altruistic intent, the United States endeavours to spread its hegemony in the world. Over the decades, American Foreign Policy is seen to have acted purely in response to its own appraisal of emerging international situations and incidents. These appraisals have not been based on a collective assessment by the worlds leading nations but instead have been overwhelmingly based on American thoughts and habits. The Foreign Policy of any nation is indeed pursued to promote its interests and to further its objectives in the international arena. Every nation seeks to engage other nations of the world fundamentally to safeguard its own interests and ensure prosperity, whether economic or political, for itself. It is widely accepted that such engagement must occur in a manner that does not transgress the sovereignty of a nation or violate the accepted norms of civilised existence. American Foreign Policy is commonly perceived to often cast aside these norms and aggressively pursue what is considered by many as a parochial agenda. Even as the sole superpower maintains that its actions are motivated by altruistic intent and benevolence towards the lesser privileged nations, its influence and stature in international affairs has grown over the years which in turn, has apparently intensified the imperiousness and hegemonic attitude of the United States. METHODOLOGY Statement Of The Problem The aim of this research is to study the Foreign Policy of the United States of America and the appraisals that have influenced such policy actions so as to conclude whether the United States has engaged in an imperious conduct in international affairs and pursued a hegemonic outlook. Hypothesis Common beliefs and perceptions predominantly suggest that American Foreign Policy has been a reaction to the developments in the world, implying that the United States had essentially been an innocent victim of circumstances. Such perceptions emphatically harp upon the Isolationism policy and neutral attitude of American Foreign Policy as proof of Americas altruism. This research holds such inferences to be only partly correct, if not completely incorrect. It is maintained that the United States of America has always pursued a foreign policy purely to further its own interests without regard to international norms and opinion. The country has steadily shaped its foreign policy well in anticipation of developments and in some cases even without reasonable instigation. American Foreign Policy is considered to be parochial and imperious in nature. Scope Of The Research The turn of the 19th century was a watershed event in American Foreign Policy. It marked a distinct change from the earlier non-interventionist attitude to an outward looking and global approach. This altered stance has been the essence of the American Foreign Policy ever since. This research will examine the principal episodes and events relating to American Foreign Policy between the years 1900 to 2000. Foreign Policy is a reflection of a nations past as much as it is the response to contemporaneous matters. Therefore, to lend perspective as well as a background to the study, this research will briefly dwell upon Americas historical foreign relations prior 1900. History and past events can be objectively assessed only if they are examined in a detached manner. Their study must not influenced by present happenings and current thoughts or perceptions. This research will therefore terminate with the year 2000 because only a decade has elapsed since, which may not adequate to lend objectivity to the study after that period. Organisation Of The Research Foreign Policy of a nation is invariably an evolutionary process. While being a response to current and likely future issues, it relies heavily on past experiences. It either builds upon and consolidates the past successes or learns from its past mistakes and failures. Foreign policy responses to completely new issues tend to derive lesson from past instances of similar nature. This research has, therefore, been undertaken in a chronological order. The study has been chapterised into periods between key international events that influenced the American Foreign Policy. The study is accordingly divided as follows :- Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. Chapter II Historic Backdrop. (Covers the period from the American Independence to the end of the 19th century.) Chapter III Upto the First World War. (Covers the period from the beginning of the 20th century till the First World War.) Chapter IV Inter War Years. (Covers the period between the two World Wars.) Chapter V Cold War Era. (Covers the period following the Second World War till the fall of Communism in the early 1990s.) Chapter VI Post Cold War. (Covers the last decade of the 20th century.) Chapter VII Conclusion. (Summary and Inferences.) Method of Data Collection The data referred to during the course of this research was obtained from published books on the subject. Opinions, analyses and facts were also obtained from various internet resources, journals, periodicals and newspapers of repute. It was endeavoured to consult material from both sides of the divide. Works of Western as well as non-Western authors were referred, to lend objectivity to the study. All sources used for this research have been listed in the bibliography at the end of the research. Important citations and references for specific parts of the study have also been mentioned in the main part of the study in the form of end-notes after each chapter.
Monday, January 20, 2020
Exhibition on the Depiction of the Annunciation by Early Northern Rena :: essays research papers
â€Å"The annunciation is the very moment of the Incarnation when the Holy Ghost overshadowed the Virgin and the Child conceived in her womb, the consummation of her marriage to God.†(p.84 textbook)           The Annunciation by Rogier van der Weyden, completed around 1435, is a 33 7/8†x 36 1/4†panel, which once was part of a triptych. The depiction is of Mary in a bedchamber, seated by the light of a window at the right, positioned on the floor in a stance that implies that she had been busy reading. The way that she is seated is similar to Campin’s Merode Altarpiece. (p.125 textbook) Gabriel appears to Mary’s back with a somewhat solemn face as Mary turns her head towards him.      According to the text, Rogier uses bold lighting effects, graceful figures, and plunging perspectives, but allows the figures to stand out prominently against a more subdued background. (p. 126 textbook) Through a back window, the countryside can be seen, showing that this is a daytime setting. Symbolically, the textbook states that this scene is a ‘thalamus virginis’, and that in effect, Mary and God are symbolically sharing a marriage bedchamber. This can be explained by the depiction of Christ on a medallion hanging from the back of the bed.      Van Eyck’s rendition of this theme, Annunciation, is thought to be the left wing of a triptych. Completed around 1435-37, it is a panel transferred to canvas, 36 1/2†x 14 3/8†. Here we see Mary in a church with both arms somewhat elevated in almost surprise fashion. Mary doesn’t appear too happy or concerned even, and both she and Gabriel seem relatively neutral in emotion, considering the situation.      Van Eyck depicts the moment when the â€Å"Old Dispensation became the New.†(p.104 textbook) Some symbolism includes Jehovah in the stained glass window above Mary, seen with the seraphim that Isaiah envisioned of the Lord. Seven rays of light protrude from the clerestory window in the upper left of the piece, symbolizing the desention of the Holy Ghost. The stool in the lower right of the panel symbolizes Isaiah’s words, â€Å"heaven is my Throne, the earth is my footstool.†(p.104 textbook) The white lilies represent Mary’s purity.      The Annunciation by Jacquemart de Hesdin, and possibly his shop, dates to around 1400. This piece, is from the Tres-Belles de Jehan de France, Duc de Berry. Mary is seated inside an open structure, as usual, disturbed by her devotional reading.
Sunday, January 12, 2020
Fall of Troy Essay
Pride and self confidence are values often times convey in stories and books that chronicle tales about Greek Mythology. With the Gods and goddesses favoring a certain person and taking sides, mortals oftentimes grew more complacent and over confident about their own selves. As the Greek word Hubris implies it is an exaggerated act and display of self confidence that many times it leads to downfall of actions taken. Decisions are blinded and corrupted by the display of over confidence, thus details of courses are taken for granted. The events that transpired in Homer’s Iliad exemplify a person and a group of persons act of hubris.            The Iliad is divided into different sections. It is composed of twenty four different books, which narrate Achilles story and The Trojan War. Each story depicts how hubris plays an important role that leads to the result of the war and the downfall of a mighty city. It also narrates how disputes are born through hubris. The Trojan War was believed to be the greatest conflict in Greek History. The origin of the war was believed to have started, long before Achilles was born. It roots its origin in the conflict with the golden apple that happens among the three most powerful goddesses, Athena, Aphrodite and Hera. The event leads to Paris, a Trojan Prince running away with Helen, wife of Menelaus. Book I of Iliad, The Quarrel by the Ships verse 10 showcases a display of Agamemnon, King of Mycenae and brother of Menelaus, exceeding self confidence. â€Å"Old man, don’t let me catch you by our hollow ships, sneaking back here today or later on. Who cares about Apollo’s scarf and staff? I’ll not release the girl to you, no, not before she’s grown old with me in Argos, far from home, working the loom, sharing my bed. Go away. If you want to get home safely, don’t anger me.†(Homer The Quarrel by the Ships: Book 1 of the Iliad). Agamemnon’s pride and boastful antics were very evident that he even defies Apollo’s power. He has this belief that, since he is a very worthy ruler, he deserved all the great things as rewards. Also, we can see Agamemnon’s proud image on the same book verse 110 to 120: â€Å"Prophet of evil, when have you ever said good things to me? You love to predict the worst, always the worst! You never show good news.  Now, in prophecy to the Danaans, you say archer Apollo brings us pain because I was unwilling to accept fine ransom for Chryses’ daughter, Chryseis. But I have a great desire to take her home in fact want her more than Clytaemnestra, the wife I married Chryseis is just as good  in her shape, physique, intelligence, or work. Still, I’m prepared to give her back, if that’s best. I want the people safe, not all killed off. But then you’ll owe me another prize. I won’t be the only Argive left without a gift. That would be entirely unfair to me. You all can see my spoils are going elsewhere.†(Homer The Quarrel by the Ships: Book 1 of the Iliad). He refused to set free the priest’s daughter and would only do so if a replacement would take her place. Agamemnon believed that what the oracle had foreseen is wrong and his decision could only be moved if the condition he had set is satisfied. What he wants, he should get. It also shows that Agamemnon did not want others to make fun of him if he would loose his concubine without a replacement.             To avoid the looming war a truce was agreed upon that Paris and Menelaus should fight and whoever won would have Helen as his wife. Paris lost but could not accept his defeat. His words to Helen from Book III Paris, Menelaus and Helen verse 440 were some kind of excuse for his failure. â€Å"Wife, don’t mock my courage with your insults. Yes, Menelaus has just defeated me, but with Athena’s help. Next time I’ll beat him for we have gods on our side, too.†(Homer â€Å"Paris, Menelaus, and Helen: Book 3 of the Iliad†) He could have easily accepted the defeat and handed out Helen to Menelaus. But, he too was too proud to accept the defeat. Menelaus has clearly won their match but he could not bear loosing Helen, especially because of his own fault. Paris could have died right away if not for Aphrodite lending him the much needed help. Paris Hubris was in display.            The war then has become inevitable as Aphrodite persuaded Pandarus in breaking the Trojans oath. â€Å"Fiery hearted son of Lycaon, why not do as I suggest? Prepare yourself to shoot a swift arrow at Menelaus. You’d earn thanks and glory from all Trojans, most of all from Prince Alexander. He’d be the every first to bring fine gifts, if he could see warlike Menelaus, son of Atreus, mounted on his bier, his bitter funeral pyre, killed by your arrow.†(Homer The Armies Clash: Book Four of the Iliad).  Pandarus shoots Menelaus. His arrogant attitude and greed for fame and appreciation broke the treaty. Believing that he would gain glory by killing Menelaus, he fired his arrow. Pandarus was hungry for the honor he would get if eventually he can kill Menelaus. It would be of great pride of him to be recognized in that way.            The war has erupted, and many Trojan and Achaeans have died. Diomemedes, guided by Athena, have been pushing the Trojan Army back with his superb fighting skill. But as he pushes forward he was hit by Lycaon’s son. â€Å"Come on, you brave horse-lashing Trojans, for the finest of Achaeans has been hurt.  I don’t think he’ll long survive my arrow’s force.†(Homer â€Å"Diomedes Goes to Battle: Book V of the Iliad†). Lycaon’s son was bragging and shouting that he has killed Diomedes. For him, the best warrior has been killed so it would all be easy to take on the remaining enemy. He thinks of himself so highly and mighty. Little that he knows that Diomedes was alive and his boastful act only infuriates the fighting spirit of Diomedes. He was furious and attacked the Trojans more violently. So angry was Diomedes that he even tried killing Aphrodite. â€Å"Diomedes with his ruthless bronze had gone to run down Aphrodite, knowing she was not a god who could do much in battle not one of those who control men’s wars. She was no Athena, no goddess Strife, who destroys whole cities.†(Homer â€Å"Diomedes Goes to Battle: Book V of the Iliad†). It was a display of hubris, as a mortal man attacked a goddess. Mortal men should respect Gods and recognized the vast difference between their abilities. Diomedes is powerful but he should know the limit of being human as Apollo stated from Book five verse 440 â€Å"Take care son of Tydeus. Go back. Don’t think you’re equal to the gods. The race of men who walk upon the ground can never match the race of deathless gods.†(Homer â€Å"Diomedes Goes to Battle: Book V of the Iliad†).  The God’s pride was injured, and Diomedes actions angered the Gods and resulted to more bloodshed. From verse 330 of book six, it would be obvious that Hector was feeling low. â€Å"Paris, you’re a worthless man. It’s quite wrong of you to nurse that anger in your heart, while men are being destroyed, fighting around the city its steep walls. It’s because of you the sounds of warfare catch fire around our city you would fight   any man you saw avoiding battle fleeing war’s brutality.†(Homer â€Å"Hector and Andromache: Book 6 of the Iliad†).  This statement from Hector, commander in chief of Troy, shows how he has been hurt by the actions done by Paris. For him, branding his brother is a great insult. He knew he was fated to die in that war. Still, he chooses to fight for his people. Fully aware that it was his brother actions that shape the war, still, he together with their allies was duty bound in defending Troy. The Trojans are too proud especially Hector, the heir to the throne, to admit that Paris was wrong. They were too high and almighty to believe that a fellow Trojan would commit such misconduct. Hubris is again in display that blinded their actions. They could have easily handed out Helen when the Greeks asked for Helen’s return. Hector’s disappointment with Paris is again revealed to the following statement â€Å"Brother, no one could justly criticize your work in battle, for you fight bravely. But you deliberately hold back and do not wish to fight. It pains my heart, when I hear shameful things about you from Trojans, who are suffering much distress because of you.† (Homer â€Å"Hector and Andromache: Book 6 of the Iliad†). He just could not stand what his fellow Trojans would tell about his brother.            Achilles on the other hand resolved to retire from fighting. His retirement from battle also showed sign of hubris. In a display of his â€Å"exaggerated pride†, which was revealing in verse 70 of Book 16, Achilles would not return to battle even if his comrades are slowly being killed and wounded. â€Å"Dreadful pain came in my heart and spirit when that man wished to cheat someone his equal and steal away that prize, and just because he’s got more power. That really hurt, given that I’ve suffered in this war so many pains here in my chest. Achaea’s sons chose that girl as my prize. I won her with my spear, once I’d destroyed her strong-walled city. Lord Agamemnon took her back, out of my hands, as if were some stranger without honor.†(Homer Patroclus Fights and Dies:Book 16 of the Iliad). His lost of drive for fighting happens when Agamemnon took Achilles concubine in replaced of the priest’s daughter who was set free. Achilles pride was hurt so he left the line of battle. He was one of the Greek’s mighty warriors and he believed that even Agamemnon should recognize that. Although, Agamemnon promised gold and the return of his concubine, to bring Achilles back to the lines of battle, Achilles injured pride was not persuaded. Instead he allowed his companion Patroclus to use his armor and fight in his place. He was proud enough not to work under the command of Agamemnon, who he believed is not a worthy commander in chief. His pride would not allow him to join the fighting, and his hubris had caused him the life of his friend.            Achilles returns to actions, from verse 20 of Book 19, was filled with power;  â€Å"Mother, this armor the god has given me is a work fit for the immortals, something no living human could create†(Homer Achilles and Agamemnon :Book 19 of the Iliad). Upon hearing this Achilles was filled with fearless power. With Thetis by his side, he led his army. The overwhelming confidence brought by the armor and the rage he was feeling, was proof of his anxiousness to return fighting. â€Å"Though you’re e a brave man, godlike Achilles, don’t encourage Achaea’s sons to fight against the Trojan on empty stomachs. If so, the fight won’t last for long if troops engage right now, once some god in fuses strength in to both sides. No. Instruct Achaeans to have some food and wine by their swift ships for they give strength and courage. No soldier can fight the enemy all day till sunset without some food.†(Homer Achilles and Agamemnon :Book 19 of the Iliad). This was a major display of hubris of Achilless, promising he will not waiver, rest and eat until he has avenged the death of his friend. The Death of Patroclus forced Achilles to return to the battlefield. He was enveloped of the idea of revenge. He was so angry that he even attacked Apollo, from verse 10 of Book 22. â€Å"Son of Peleus, why are you, a mere human, running so hard in an attempt to catch me, an immortal god? You’re still ignorant it seems, of the fact that I’m a god. You keep coming at me with such anger.†(Homer â€Å"The Death of Hector: Book 22 of the Iliad†). Achilles was so enraged that he was fighting fiercely even in the face of God. He blames himself for the death of his friend. He was too weak to bear the his pride. The fall of Troy was destined to happen. With the consent from the Gods, Troy was fated to fall. However, hubris played an important role to its downfall. From the moment, the Trojan War broke out it was the hubris not only by my mortals but by Gods, which made the events more chaotic. With the Gods by taking up sides to show their power the outcome of the war and the course of history itself, was shaped and reshaped. Treaties could have been signed and bloodshed could have been avoided if not because of the over exaggerated pride and confidence every man possess. When the Trojans celebrated their apparent victory, it leads to their downfall. They have underestimated their foe. They taught that the Gods had ruled in their favor, when the horse was found. They also believed that the time a sea monster ate those who opposed the entry of the horse to the city was a sign from the Gods. They grew more complacent and failed to act and think rationally. They deduced that in fact they are greater warriors and men compared to the Greeks. They admired themselves too well. The admiration was overwhelming that they failed to size up their opponents that eventually it leads to a tragic end. The belief that the City could not be conquered made a difference. Necessary precautions were not done. (Homer The Iliad) Homer. Achilles and Agamemnon :Book 19 of the Iliad. 800 B. C. E. â€â€. The Armies Clash: Book Four of the Iliad. 800 B. C. E. â€â€. â€Å"The Death of Hector: Book 22 of the Iliad.† (800 B. C. E). â€â€. â€Å"Diomedes Goes to Battle: Book V of the Iliad.† (800 B. C. E). â€â€. â€Å"Hector and Andromache: Book 6 of the Iliad.† (800 B. C. E). â€â€. The Iliad. 800 B.C.E. â€â€. â€Å"Paris, Menelaus, and Helen: Book 3 of the Iliad.† (800 B. C. E). â€â€. Patroclus Fights and Dies:Book 16 of the Iliad. 800 B. C. E. â€â€. The Quarrel by the Ships: Book 1 of the Iliad. 800 B. C. E.
Saturday, January 4, 2020
The Ethical Issues Of An Industry ( Or Company ) - 1494 Words
Assignment 3 Identify two of the main ethical issues of your industry (or your company). Recall from the lecture that the ethical Issues of an industry (or company) are behaviors, practices, or policies (e.g., company policies) that are thought to occur in the industry, and that raise questions about their ethics or morality because 1) they involve behaviors that harm or could harm others or oneself (either directly or indirectly); 2) they involve behaviors that violate or appear to violate or have the potential to violate one’s own moral standards or the moral standards of one’s society, and 3) they involve behaviors that if made public would normally produce in the agent the moral emotions of shame, guilt, embarrassment, and remorse. In identifying each ethical issue that pertains to your industry (or company), you should: 1. Describe the behavior, policy, or practice and how it relates to your industry (or company). ISSUE 2: Software Quality Assurance Software quality assurance is a challenging task. There are many questions raised by software being released with defects. What are the ethical responsibilities of a software vendor releasing software with bugs, especially if it is system-critical software, but also when releasing non system-critical software. It is an ethical issue when software vendor are not open about the quality of the testing, and be willing to share known defects in their systems. It seems that typical commercial software is created and modified, andShow MoreRelatedApple Inc. Ethical Issues1537 Words  | 7 Pagesmultinational technology companies founded in the United States. Because Apple has had great leaders and also have a great brand, the world is always focused on the company. In this paper, we are mainly going to discuss Apple’s ethical success and challenges. 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